How is the Church governed, and who ordains its ministers?
Earliest statement of each found so far: Equal presbyters governing in councils, Clement of Rome, c. 96; Bishops in apostolic succession, Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110.
What the early Church said, in their own words →
- Methodist: Divided. United Methodist bishops are not ordained as bishops but are clergy 'elected and consecrated to the office of bishop'; Methodist churches in the British line have no bishops.
- Anabaptist: Divided. Mennonite conferences describe both congregation-first and conference-first polity; Amish and Old Order bishops are chosen by lot.
- Pentecostal: Divided. The Assemblies of God mixes congregational and presbyterian features; the Church of God (Cleveland) and COGIC have strong central or episcopal offices.
- Oriental Orthodox placements rest mainly on Coptic and Ethiopian church texts. The Armenian texts checked so far are brief, and Syriac and Indian Orthodox texts are not yet checked.
a passage teaches it a passage rejects it authorship uncertain defined after this timeline ends
Bishops in apostolic successionCatholicOrthodoxOriental OrthodoxChurch of the EastAnglican7 teach it · Defined 1563 →
Equal presbyters governing in councilsReformed1 teaches it · 8 reject it · Confession 1561 →
Self-governing congregationBaptist12 reject it · Confession 1648 →
The positions
Bishops in apostolic succession CatholicOrthodoxOriental OrthodoxChurch of the EastAnglican
What it holds: Bishops, distinct from and above presbyters, succeed the apostles through an unbroken line of ordination, and govern the churches.
In order that the full and living Gospel might always be preserved in the Church the apostles left bishops as their successors.Catechism of the Catholic Church, 77
he, as a successor of the Apostles, having received in continued succession by the imposition of hands and the invocation of the All-holy Spirit the grace that is given him of the Lord of binding and loosingConfession of Dositheus (Synod of Jerusalem), Decree 10 (1672)
It is evident unto all men diligently reading holy Scripture and ancient Authors, that from the Apostles' time there have been these Orders of Ministers in Christ's Church; Bishops, Priests, and Deacons.Book of Common Prayer, Preface to the Ordinal (1662)
the service of Patriarchs, successors of the Apostles everywhere, at all timesCopticChurch.net, Sacraments: Priesthood
The requirement that all ordained ministers of the Church should stand in the apostolic succession, in virtue of their sacramental ordination, is an expression and a guarantee of continuity between the apostolic origin of the Church and the present qualification of her ministers.Common Statement on Sacramental Life, Catholic Church and Assyrian Church of the East (2017)
Formally defined: Not a single dogma; Council of Trent, Session 23 (1563); Anglican Ordinal (1550/1662); Synod of Jerusalem (1672)
Earliest statement: Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Equal presbyters governing in councils Reformed
What it holds: All ministers of the Word hold equal authority; churches are governed by elders, and congregations are joined under assemblies of elders (synods).
As for the ministers of the Word, they all have the same power and authority, no matter where they may beBelgic Confession, Article 31 (1561)
For the better government, and further edification of the church, there ought to be such assemblies as are commonly called synods or councilsWestminster Confession of Faith, 31.1 (1646)
Formally defined: Belgic Confession (1561); Westminster Confession (1646)
Earliest statement: Clement of Rome, c. 96
Self-governing congregation Baptist
What it holds: Each gathered congregation holds full authority from Christ to choose its officers and exercise discipline, with no higher church body over it.
To each of these churches thus gathered, according to his mind declared in his word, he hath given all that power and authority, which is in any way needful for their carrying on that order in worship and disciplineSecond London Baptist Confession, 26.7 (1689)
A New Testament church of the Lord Jesus Christ is an autonomous local congregation of baptized believers, associated by covenant in the faith and fellowship of the gospelBaptist Faith and Message, Article VI (2000)
Formally defined: Cambridge Platform (1648); Second London Baptist Confession, ch. 26 (1689)
No early passage in the works searched so far states it yet.
Common ground
These are affirmed by more than one position, so a passage saying only this counts for none of them.
- There are ordained ministers called elders or presbyters, and deacons
- Ordination by laying on of hands with prayer
- The congregation has a part in choosing or approving its ministers
- Church discipline is exercised
- Councils of bishops met to settle disputes (as a historical fact, without a claim about divine institution)
Every deciding passage, earliest first
Clement of Rome, c. 96
Our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that strife would arise over the office of bishop. For this reason, having received complete foreknowledge, they appointed the men mentioned above and gave instructions that if they should die, other approved men would succeed to their ministry. We do not consider it right to remove from their ministry those who were appointed by them, or later by other reputable men with the consent of the whole church. These men have served the flock of Christ blamelessly, with humility, quietly and without arrogance, and have been well spoken of by all for man…
- Teaches: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Clement of Rome, c. 96
Take up the letter of the blessed apostle Paul and consider what he wrote to you at the very beginning of the gospel. He truly wrote to you under the Spirit's guidance about himself, Cephas, and Apollos, because even then you had formed factions. But that division brought you a lesser sin, since you were aligning yourselves with apostles who had been testified to and with a man approved by them. Now consider who has led you astray and diminished the noble character of your renowned brotherly love. It is shameful, beloved, utterly shameful, and unworthy of the conduct that belongs to life in Ch…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Be subject to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was subject to the Father and the apostles were subject to Christ and to the Father, so that there may be a unity that is both fleshly and spiritual.
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
The Lord was united with the Father, and so he did nothing without the Father, neither by himself nor through the apostles. In the same way, you must do nothing without the bishop and the council of elders. Do not even try to make anything appear reasonable to you privately. Instead, gather together in one place and have one prayer, one supplication, one mind, one hope in love, in the blameless joy, which is Jesus Christ, than whom nothing is better.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
In the same way, let everyone respect the deacons as they would Jesus Christ, just as they should also respect the bishop, who is a pattern of the Father, and the council of elders as the council of God and as a bond of the apostles. Without these, a church is not called a church.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Every one of you, follow the bishop, as Jesus Christ follows the Father. Follow the presbytery as you would the apostles. Honor the deacons as you would God's own command. Let no one do anything that belongs to the church without the bishop. Let that Eucharist be held valid which is under the bishop, or under someone he has entrusted with it. Where the bishop appears, there let the people be, just as where Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church. Without the bishop it is not permitted either to baptize or to hold the love feast. But whatever he approves is pleasing to God as well, so tha…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
All of you follow the bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and follow the council of elders as you would the apostles. Respect the deacons as God's command. Let no one do anything that pertains to the church without the bishop. Let that Eucharist be considered valid which is under the bishop or under someone he has entrusted.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
So it is necessary, as you are already doing, that you do nothing without the bishop. Submit also to the council of elders as you would to the apostles of Jesus Christ our hope, in whom we will be found if we live in him.
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
In a short time I came to know your bishop with a closeness that was not human but spiritual. If that is true of me, how much more do I count you blessed, who are joined with him as the church is joined with Jesus Christ, and as Jesus Christ is joined with the Father, so that all things may sound together in unity? Let no one be deceived. Anyone who is not within the altar goes without the bread of God. For if the prayer of one or two carries such power, how much more the prayer of the bishop and the whole church? So whoever stays away from the assembly is already proud and has passed sentence…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Likewise, let everyone honor the deacons as Jesus Christ, and the bishop too, for he is a figure of the Father, and the presbyters as God's council and the apostles' band. Without these, nothing is called a church. I am sure you feel the same about all this. For I have received the sample of your love, and I keep it with me in your bishop. His very bearing is a great lesson, and his gentleness is power. I think even the godless honor him. Because I love you, I spare you, though I could write more sharply on this point. I did not think myself fit for this, that I, a condemned man, should issue …
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
The Lord was one with the Father and did nothing without him (John 5:19): nothing on his own, nothing through the apostles. In the same way, you must do nothing without the bishop and the presbyters. Do not try to make some private course look reasonable to yourselves. Come together in one place: one prayer, one plea, one mind, one hope, in love, in spotless joy. That joy is Jesus Christ, and nothing is better than he. Run together, all of you, as to one temple of God, as to one altar, to one Jesus Christ. He came forth from one Father; he is with that One; and to that One he has returned.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Wherever the bishop appears, there let the congregation be, just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the whole church. It is not permitted to baptize or to hold a love-feast without the bishop. But whatever he approves, this is also pleasing to God, so that everything you do may be secure and valid.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
The more anyone sees a bishop keeping silent, the more let him stand in awe of him. Whoever the Master of the house sends to run his household, we must welcome as we would welcome the one who sent him (Matthew 10:40; John 13:20). Plainly, then, we must regard the bishop as the Lord himself. Onesimus himself warmly praises your good order in God. You all live by the truth, and no faction makes its home among you. In fact, you do not even listen to anyone more than to one who speaks truly about Jesus Christ.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
In the persons I have named I have looked on your whole congregation in faith, and I have loved it. So I urge you: be eager to do everything in God's own harmony, with the bishop presiding in the place of God, the presbyters in the place of the council of the apostles, and the deacons, so very dear to me, entrusted with the ministry of Jesus Christ, who was with the Father before the ages and at the end was revealed. All of you, then, having received God's own character, respect one another. Let no one regard his neighbor according to the flesh; love one another in Jesus Christ, always. Let no…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
When you submit to the bishop as you would to Jesus Christ, I can see that you are not living by human standards. You live by Jesus Christ, who died for us so that, believing in his death, you might escape death. So it is necessary, and you already do it, that you undertake nothing apart from the bishop. Submit also to the presbytery as to the apostles of Jesus Christ, our hope. If we make our life in him, in him we will be found. The deacons, too, serve the mysteries of Jesus Christ (1 Corinthians 4:1), and they must please everyone in every way. They are not waiters handing round food and dr…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
The more you see a bishop keeping silence, the more you should revere him. For everyone whom the master of the house sends to manage his own household, we must receive as we would receive the one who sent him. Clearly, then, we must regard the bishop as the Lord himself.
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
You too must not presume on your bishop's youth. According to the power of God the Father, render him every mark of respect. I know that the holy presbyters also have not presumed on his rank, young as it appears. As men wise in God they defer to him; not to him, though, but to the Father of Jesus Christ, the Bishop of all. To honor the One who has desired us, then, it is fitting to obey without any pretense. For a man does not deceive this bishop who is seen; he cheats the Bishop who is unseen. In such a case the reckoning is not with flesh but with God, who knows what is hidden.
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Pay close attention to the bishop, so that God may pay close attention to you. I offer my very life for those who submit to the bishop, the council of elders, and the deacons. May I be counted worthy to have a share with them in God. Labor together, struggle together, run together, suffer together, rest together, and rise together as God's stewards, counselors, and servants.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Let no one be deceived: if anyone is not within the altar, he is deprived of the bread of God. For if the prayer of one or two has such power, how much more does the prayer of the bishop and of the whole church?
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Since in the persons I have already named I saw the whole multitude in faith and loved them, I urge you: make it your aim to do everything in the concord of God. Let the bishop preside in the place of God, and the council of elders in the place of the council of the apostles, and let the deacons, who are most sweet to me, be entrusted with the service of Jesus Christ, who before the ages was with the Father and appeared at the end.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
For even if some wished to deceive me according to the flesh, the Spirit is not deceived, for it is from God. It knows where it comes from and where it is going (John 3:8), and it lays bare what is hidden. While I was with you I cried out; I spoke with a loud voice, God's own voice: "Pay attention to the bishop, to the presbytery, and to the deacons." Some suspected that I said this because I already knew of the split among certain people. But the One in whom I am bound is my witness that I did not learn it from human flesh. The Spirit was preaching, saying this: "Do nothing without the bishop…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
It is good for us now to come to our senses, while we still have time to repent and turn to God. It is good to know God and the bishop. Whoever honors the bishop has been honored by God. Whoever does anything in secret from the bishop serves the devil.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
If anyone is able to remain in continence for the honor of the Lord's flesh, let him remain without boasting. If he boasts, he has perished; and if he is esteemed more highly than the bishop, he has been corrupted. It is fitting for men and women who marry to make their union with the bishop's judgment, so that the marriage may be according to the Lord and not according to desire. Let all things be done for the honor of God.
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Some of you suspected that I said these things because I knew in advance about the division of certain people. But the one in whom I am bound is my witness that I did not learn it from human flesh. The Spirit was proclaiming, saying these things: "Do nothing without the bishop. Keep your flesh as a temple of God. Love unity. Flee divisions. Become imitators of Jesus Christ, as also he is of his Father."
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
It is reasonable, from now on, that we come to our senses, while we still have time to repent and turn to God. It is good to know God and the bishop. Whoever honors the bishop has been honored by God. Whoever does anything behind the bishop's back is serving the devil. So let everything overflow for you in grace, for you are worthy. You have given me rest in every way; may Jesus Christ give you rest. You loved me when I was away and when I was with you. God is your reward. Enduring all things for his sake, you will reach him.
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Strive, then, to be established in the teachings of the Lord and of the apostles, so that you may prosper in all you do: in flesh and in spirit, in faith and in love, in the Son and the Father and the Spirit, at the beginning and at the end. May you prosper together with your bishop, most worthy of honor, with your presbytery, that finely woven spiritual crown, and with your godly deacons. Submit to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ submitted to the Father, and as the apostles submitted to Christ and to the Father, so that there may be a union of flesh and of spirit alike.
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
So I have been granted the privilege of seeing you, through Damas, your bishop, a man worthy of God; through your worthy presbyters, Bassus and Apollonius; and through my fellow slave Zotion, the deacon. May I have joy in him! For he is subject to the bishop as to God's grace, and to the presbytery as to the law of Jesus Christ.
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
It is fitting for you too not to take advantage of the bishop's age, but to give him all respect according to the power of God the Father. I have learned that the holy council of elders did not despise his apparent youthful rank, but as wise men in God yielded to him. Yet they yielded not to him, but to the Father of Jesus Christ, who is bishop of all.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Be strong in Jesus Christ. Submit to the bishop as to the commandment, and likewise to the council of elders. And love one another, each one of you, with an undivided heart.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
So be on your guard against such people. And this will hold true for you if you are not puffed up with pride, and if you stay inseparable from God, Jesus Christ, and from the bishop and the commands of the apostles. Whoever is inside the altar's sanctuary is clean; whoever is outside the sanctuary is not clean. That is, whoever does anything apart from the bishop, the presbytery, and the deacons does not have a clean conscience.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
So I was counted worthy to see you in the persons of Damas your bishop, who is worthy of God, of your worthy elders Bassus and Apollonius, and of my fellow slave Zotion the deacon. May I have joy of Zotion, for he submits to the bishop as to the grace of God, and to the council of elders as to the law of Jesus Christ.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Make every effort, then, to share in one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ and one cup that unites us in his blood, one altar, just as there is one bishop together with the council of elders and the deacons, my fellow servants. Do this so that whatever you do, you may act according to God.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
So you must align yourselves with the mind of the bishop, as you are already doing. Your council of elders, worthy of its name and worthy of God, is fitted together with the bishop as strings are fitted to a lyre. Because of this, in your concord and harmonious love, Jesus Christ is sung.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
Be eager, then, to use one Eucharist, so that whatever you do, you do it God's way. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup for union with his blood. There is one altar, just as there is one bishop, with the presbytery and the deacons, my fellow slaves.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
The one who is inside the altar is clean, but the one who is outside the altar is not clean. That is, anyone who does anything apart from the bishop, the council of elders, and the deacons is not clean in conscience.
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
So it is right for you to keep pace with the bishop's mind, and you already do. Your presbytery, deservedly renowned and worthy of God, is tuned to the bishop like strings to a lyre. That is why Jesus Christ is sung in your concord and in your harmonious love. Now each of you, one by one, become a choir, so that, in tune with one another in concord and taking your pitch from God in unity, you may sing with one voice through Jesus Christ to the Father, so that he may both hear you and recognize, by the good you do, that you are members of his Son. It does you good, then, to live in blameless un…
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
My chains, which I carry around for the sake of Jesus Christ, exhort you, asking that you may attain God: remain in your concord and in prayer with one another. For it is fitting for each one of you, and especially the council of elders, to refresh the bishop for the honor of the Father, Jesus Christ, and the apostles.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
If I could enjoy such closeness with your bishop in so short a time, a closeness not merely human but spiritual, how much more do I count you blessed, who are as closely united with him as the church is with Jesus Christ, and as Jesus Christ is with the Father, so that all things may be in harmonious unity?
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Ignatius of Antioch, c. 110
I, then, was doing my part, as a man fitted for unity. Where there is division and anger, God does not dwell. To all who repent the Lord grants forgiveness, if in repenting they turn to the unity of God and to the bishop's council. I trust in the grace of Jesus Christ, who will loose every chain from you. Here is my plea: act from no spirit of rivalry (Philippians 2:3), but as those taught by Christ. For I heard some people saying, "Unless I find it in the archives, I don't believe it in the gospel." I told them, "It is written." Their reply: "That is exactly what is in dispute." But my archiv…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Dionysius of Corinth, c. 171
The one to the Athenians stirs up faith and the conduct according to the gospel. He rebukes them for having neglected this, since they had almost fallen away from the word after their leader Publius happened to be martyred during the persecutions of that time. He mentions that Quadratus became their bishop after Publius was martyred, testifying that through his zeal they were gathered together and received a rekindling of faith. He also makes clear that Dionysius the Areopagite, having been turned to the faith by the apostle Paul according to what is shown in the Acts, was the first to be entr…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 180
The apostolic plan stands revealed throughout the whole world; it is present for all who wish to see the truth to behold in every church. We can enumerate those whom the apostles instituted as bishops in the churches, along with their successions down to us — men who taught nothing of the kind, nor knew it, the very thing these people rave about. If the apostles had known hidden mysteries, which they taught separately and secretly to the perfect, they would have handed them over especially to those to whom they also entrusted the churches themselves. They wanted those they left as successors t…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 180
They insisted that the men they were leaving behind as successors be thoroughly blameless and irreproachable in every respect, so that great benefit would come to those who would act in their place of teaching, while the greatest calamity would befall those who fell away. But because it would take far too long to list the successions of every church in a work of this scope, we will set forth the tradition that comes from the Apostles and the faith proclaimed to humanity, which has reached us through the succession of bishops from the most glorious two Apostles, Peter and Paul, who founded and …
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 180
Therefore the blessed Apostles, having founded and instructed the Church, handed over the episcopate of the Church to Linus. Paul mentions this Linus in his letters to Timothy (1 Timothy). Anacletus succeeded him, and after him, in the third place from the Apostles, Clement obtained the episcopate. Clement had seen the Apostles themselves and conversed with them; he still had the Apostles' preaching and tradition before his eyes, for many who had been taught by the Apostles were still surviving at that time. Under his leadership, therefore, when a significant dissension had arisen among the br…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 180
It is necessary to obey the presbyters who are in the Church, those who possess succession from the Apostles, just as we have shown; for they, together with the succession of the episcopate, have received a certain charisma of truth according to the will of the Father (Leviticus 10:1-2). But those others who stand apart from the principal succession, and who gather in whatever place, must be regarded with suspicion, whether as heretics and men of bad judgment, or as those who divide, are puffed up, and please themselves, or again as hypocrites who act for the sake of gain and vain glory (Numbe…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Tertullian, c. 200
Still, if anyone dares to slot themselves into the apostolic age so they can claim the apostles handed them down—since they were 'under the apostles'—we can say: Let them produce the origins of their churches. Let them lay out the succession of their bishops, running unbroken from the start, so that their first bishop can show an apostle, or an apostolic man who stuck with the apostles, as his author and predecessor. That is how apostolic churches present their credentials: the church of Smyrna reports Polycarp was appointed by John; Rome produces Clement, ordained by Peter; likewise every oth…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Tertullian, c. 200
If anyone dares to wedge themselves into the apostolic era just so they can claim the Apostles handed them down—on the grounds that they ‘lived under the Apostles’—we can answer bluntly: let them cough up the origins of their churches. Let them lay out the full line of their bishops, an unbroken succession from the very start, so that their first bishop can name an Apostle—or at least an apostolic man who stuck with the Apostles—as his author and predecessor. That is exactly how the apostolic churches present their credentials: the church of Smyrna records that John installed Polycarp; the Rom…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Tertullian, c. 200
One last item before we close this material: a warning about who may give and who may receive Baptism. The right to give it belongs first to the high priest — that is, the bishop. Next come presbyters and deacons, but never without the bishop's authorization, for the sake of the Church's honor. Keep that authority intact, and peace stays intact; discard it, and even laypeople claim the right. The logic is blunt: what is received on equal terms can be given on equal terms, provided no bishop, presbyter, or deacon has already been summoned. Learners must not be kept from the Lord's word. (1 Cori…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Tertullian, c. 208
In sum: if it is settled that what is earlier is truer, what is earlier is what is from the beginning, what is from the beginning is what is from the apostles, it will likewise be settled that that was handed down from the apostles which has been sacrosanct in the apostles’ churches. Let us see what milk the Corinthians drew from Paul, by what rule the Galatians were corrected, what the Philippians, Thessalonians, Ephesians read, what also the Romans nearby sound, to whom Peter and Paul left the gospel sealed also with their blood. We have also John’s foster churches—for though Marcion rejects…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Clement of Alexandria, c. 215
And so that you may take courage, having truly repented in this way, that a worthy hope of salvation remains for you, listen to a story that is not a story, but a true account handed down about John the apostle and preserved in memory. For after the tyrant died, John returned from the island of Patmos to Ephesus. He used to go out, when invited, to the neighboring regions of the Gentiles, in some places to appoint bishops, in others to fit together whole churches, in others to choose by lot one of those indicated by the Spirit. So he came also to one of the cities not far away, whose name some…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Tertullian, c. 220
But suppose some of them dare to insert themselves into the apostolic age, so that they may seem to have been handed down by the apostles because they existed under the apostles. We can say to them: Let them produce the origins of their churches. Let them unroll the order of their bishops, running down from the beginning by succession in such a way that their first bishop had as his author and predecessor one of the apostles or apostolic men who nevertheless persevered with the apostles.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Tertullian, c. 220
You prescribe that the solemn observances of this faith were established by the Scriptures or by the tradition of the elders, and that nothing further in the way of observance may be added, because innovation is unlawful. Stand on that ground if you can. For look, I meet you as people who fast beyond Passover, apart from those days on which the bridegroom was taken away, who insert the half-fasts of station days, and who sometimes live on bread and water, as each of you sees fit. In the end you answer that these things are to be done by choice, not by command. So you have moved from your groun…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Tertullian, c. 220
For this is how the apostolic churches present their records. The church of Smyrna reports that Polycarp was placed there by John. The church of Rome reports that Clement was ordained by Peter in the same way. Likewise the other churches certainly exhibit those whom they have as transmitters of the apostolic seed, appointed to the episcopate by the apostles.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Cyprian of Carthage, c. 251
We must hold and defend this unity firmly, especially we bishops who preside over the Church, so that we may also prove that the episcopate itself is one and indivisible. No one is to deceive the brotherhood with a lie, and no one is to corrupt the truth of the faith with a faithless violation. The episcopate is one, and each bishop holds it in its entirety. The Church is also one, spreading wider into a multitude through the increase of her fruitfulness. Just as the sun has many rays but only one light, and a tree has many branches but one trunk rooted in a tenacious root, and many streams fl…
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Cyprian of Carthage, c. 251
A brief look at these matters makes long arguments unnecessary; the truth sums itself up in a way faith grasps at once. The Lord says to Peter, "You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of the underworld will not conquer it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven: whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven" (Matt 16:18–19). After the resurrection he tells him again, "Feed my sheep" (John 21:17), and he builds his Church on this one man, entrusting his flock to his care. True, the risen Lor…
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Cyprian of Carthage, c. 251
The excessive and abrupt perfidy of many must not move or disturb us; rather, with the truth of the matter already foretold, it should strengthen our faith. Because certain men have begun to be such as were predicted beforehand, the rest of the brothers must beware of such people, since these things were also foretold, with the Lord instructing and saying, "But you, beware; behold, I have foretold everything to you" (Mark 13:23). Brothers, I beg you, avoid such men and bar pernicious talk from your side and ears as if it were a contagion of death, just as it is written: "I have hedged my ears …
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Cyprian of Carthage, c. 258
From this come those who, without divine appointment, set themselves over reckless gatherings on their own initiative. They establish themselves as leaders without any law of ordination, and with no one granting them the episcopate they take the name of bishop for themselves. The Holy Spirit points them out in the Psalms as those sitting in the chair of pestilence (Psalm 1:1)—plagues and pestilences of the faith, deceiving with the serpent's mouth, contrivers of truth's corruption, vomiting deadly poisons from their pestilent tongues. Their talk creeps like cancer (2 Timothy 2:17), and their t…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Cyprian of Carthage, c. 258
We must hold firmly to this unity and defend it, especially we bishops who preside in the Church, so that we may prove that the episcopate itself is also one and undivided. Let no one deceive the brotherhood with a lie; let no one corrupt the faith of truth by a treacherous violation. The episcopate is one, and each bishop holds his part in solidum. The Church is one, yet she extends into a multitude more widely by the increase of her fruitfulness. Just as there are many rays of the sun but one light, and many branches of a tree but one trunk grounded in a tenacious root, and just as many stre…
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Cyprian of Carthage, c. 258
If anyone considers and examines these things, there is no need for a long treatment or arguments. The proof is easy for faith, by a summary of the truth. The Lord says to Peter: "I tell you, you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of the underworld will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven: whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven" (Matthew 16:18-19). He builds the Church upon one man. And although after his resurrection he grants equal power to all the apostles an…
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Athanasius of Alexandria, c. 373
Since you also reported about the monks in Caesarea—and I learned from our beloved Dianius that they are grieved and resisting our beloved Basil the bishop—I approved you for reporting this, and I have written to them what is fitting: that as children they should obey their father and not speak against what he himself approves. For if he were suspect concerning the truth, they would be right to fight. But since they have confidence in him—and we all have confidence—that he is a boast of the Church, contending rather for the truth and teaching those in need, then it is not right to fight agains…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Athanasius of Alexandria, c. 373
For this reason the council at Nicaea became ecumenical, when three hundred eighteen bishops assembled concerning the faith because of the Arian impiety, so that splits might no longer occur piecemeal under the pretext of faith, but even if they are held, they might not prevail. For what does that council lack, that anyone should seek newer things? It is full of piety, beloved; it has filled the whole world. The Indians recognized it, and all those among the other barbarians who are Christians. Therefore the labor of those who have often attempted against it is vain. For such people have alrea…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Amphilochius of Iconium, c. 395
It was our prayer to welcome to the synod the most admirable bishop Basil, who is named with all reverence, and to have him as a sharer—or rather as the leader—in our dealings with you. But since an overwhelming bodily illness prevented him from coming, it is a mark of your perfect love that you did not overlook even the letters of our smallness. Yet we have not left your holy church without a share in his voice either. Since we have a treatise of his composed specifically on this very subject, through that writing we have him speaking together with us. What, then, is the answer to your inquir…
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Augustine of Hippo, c. 430
All you who rejoice in peace, now judge truly. Whoever has the love of Christ cannot hate peace. Listen now, you peoples, and agree with us—you who do not hold the see for which you fight unjustly. If your bishops from some one region had a dispute among themselves, whom would you want to judge it except bishops of other regions who were not part of that dispute? But when they had examined the case, they would pronounce for one side; you would never communicate with those who refused to agree with them. Why then did you communicate with these men, who did this before? For they too did not agre…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Augustine of Hippo, c. 430
While he was reading, Bishop Augustine said: I will tell your charity, and call to mind, something most sweet and most pleasant that we experienced with the Lord's help. Before the conference itself, when some of us brothers were talking together about this matter—because for the peace of Christ bishops ought either to exist or not to exist, which we must admit—as we looked around at all our brothers and fellow bishops, it was not easy for us to think of any who would want to take this on and sacrifice to the Lord by such humility. We said, as people do, 'That one can do it, that one cannot; t…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Augustine of Hippo, c. 430
All you who rejoice in peace, now judge truly. Our ancestors spoke and made books about it, those who then examined the case, so they could prove it while it was fresh: there were certain traitors of the books of the holy law, bishops from Numidia and not just any from the people. When they came to Carthage to ordain a bishop, they found Caecilian already ordained in his see. They were angry because they themselves could not ordain. Botrus and Caelestius were great enemies of Caecilian, impious, proud thieves, about whom it would take long to tell. They all joined together to fabricate a charg…
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Augustine of Hippo, c. 430
it and growing in the whole world, as it is written, could not have perished through the sins of any men mixed in with it; if, finally, the question of those very men whom they wanted to accuse rather than were able to convict has been settled—although the Church does not consist in them—and Caecilian was judged innocent, while those men were judged violent and slanderous by that emperor to whose examination they sent their accusations by their own choice; and if, after all this, whatever they say about the sins of any men, we prove either by human documents or by divine ones that their innoce…
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Cyril of Alexandria, c. 444
Cyril: …Levites have been distributed as somehow coworkers and as it were helpers for the sacred-workers, for they will keep his watches—clear that of Aaron—and all the vessels of the tent of the witness, and the keepings of the sons of Israel. And unto these is the manner of their coworking. And he sets upon the tent both Aaron and the sons with him, and ‘They will keep,’ (Numbers 3:14–17) he says, ‘their own priesthood and all according to the altar, and the inward of the veil,’ (Hebrews 3:6) that is the unspeakable and more mystical things, and as many as it is custom for those sitting-near…
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
- Rejects: Equal presbyters governing in councils
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Translation in progress
Alexander the Monk, c. 599
But these things were not bearable to the avenging demon, and he plotted how he might destroy such great joy among human beings. The demon was no longer able to persuade people to make a god of creation, for his deception had been exposed. But he attempted to persuade the unstable to rank the Creator with created things. And again there was no small disturbance in the churches of God, as a certain Arius of Alexandria went about everywhere, throwing the world into confusion. A few bishops, small in number, were carried away with him, of whom the first was Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Eusebius of …
- Rejects: Self-governing congregation
Alexander the Monk, c. 599
For no other bishop of Jerusalem ever arose besides those previously written, nor any other emperor of the Romans, nor indeed was the precious Cross found in any other way. From Augustus the emperor, under whom our Lord Jesus Christ was born according to the flesh, until the pious emperor Constantine, there were thirty-five emperors. Likewise, from James the apostle and first of the bishops until that same reign, there were thirty-five bishops of Jerusalem.
- Teaches: Bishops in apostolic succession
How this was made
Every whole work in the library on 21 October 2026 was searched for this question. Works added since then are not searched yet. The short excerpts on the topic pages (many from Tertullian, Justin, Irenaeus and Ignatius) join the search once their English has been checked against the Greek or Latin original: 94% of them (1,814 of 1,925) have passed that check, and the rest are still held out, so an early witness may occasionally be missing from these lanes. Two AI models from different labs judged each passage against all the positions at once, seeing them only as letters, without names or churches. A third model settled disagreements, and Claude reviewers then checked every deciding verdict against the passage and, for the earliest dates, against the Greek or Latin. A writer's silence is never counted.
The evidence is only as deep as the works searched: 1st century: 5 writers, 2nd century: 23 writers, 3rd century: 22 writers, 4th century: 18 writers, 5th century: 11 writers, 6th century: 5 writers, 8th century: 1 writer. The lanes are redrawn when the search is run again.